Table of Content
1
Introduction
1.1
Tulane University Information Security Strategy
Purpose
1.2
ISO17799 Security Standards Background
1.3
The Control Triad – Preventive, Detective and
Corrective
1.4
Selection of Controls
1.5
Layering of Controls/Defense In Depth
2
Role and Responsibilities
2.1
Owner
2.2
Stewards
2.3
Users
2.4
Managers
2.5
Custodians
2.6
Local Information Security Analysts
2.7
Information Security Office
2.8
Internal Audit Department
2.9
University Counsel's Office
3
Asset Classification
3.1
Unrestricted Information
3.2
Internal Use Only Information
3.3
Confidential Information
3.4
Default Classification
4
Administrative Controls
4.1
Security Policies
4.2
Security Program Management (C-I-A)
4.2.1
Confidentiality
4.2.2
Integrity
4.2.3
Availability
4.3
Risk Management
4.3.1
Risk Management Responsibility
4.4
Assurance
4.4.1
Auditing
4.4.2
Monitoring
5
Operation Controls
5.1
Personnel Security
5.2
Business Continuity Management
5.3
Computer Security Incident Handling
5.3.1
Computer Incident Response Team (CIRT)
5.3.2
Computer Incident Response and Public Relations
5.4
Security Considerations in Computer Support and
Operations
5.4.1
User Support
5.4.2
Software Support
5.4.3
Backups
5.4.4
Media Controls
5.4.5
Documentation
5.4.6
Maintenance Account
5.5
Physical and Environmental Security
5.6
Change Control Management
5.7
Protection and Control Against Malicious Software
5.8
Email Security and Control
5.8.1
Spam Control
5.8.2
Virus Control
5.8.3
Privacy Control
5.9
Intrusion Prevention/Detection Systems
6
Technical Controls
6.1
Identification and Authentication
6.1.1
Campus-Wide Identification (CWID)
6.1.2
Password Management
6.2
Access Controls
6.2.1
Segregation of Duties
6.2.2
Least Privilege
6.2.3
Logical Access Control
6.2.4
Network Access Control
6.2.5
External Access Control: Firewall and DMZ
6.2.6
Remote Access Control
6.3
Security Awareness and Education
6.4
Software Development and Maintenance
6.4.1
Incorporation Of Security Into Software
Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
6.4.2
Data Validation
6.4.3
Production System Definition
6.4.4
Special Production System Requirements
6.4.5
Separation Between Production, Development, and
Test Systems
6.4.6
User Programming
6.5
Audit Trails
6.6
Cryptography
6.6.1
Data Encryption
6.6.2
User Authentication
7
HIGH-LEVEL SECURITY PRACTICES
8
References
1
Introduction
1.1
Tulane University Information Security Strategy Purpose
The purpose of Tulane University’s
Information Security Strategy is to support and
coordinate our university community to secure Tulane
University Information and Information systems from
cyber attacks while complying with legal, statutory,
contractual, and internally developed requirements.
Using the
ISO17799 security standard as the guideline, this
document will define control objectives, identify and
assess approaches to meet the objectives, select
controls, establish benchmarks and metrics, and describe
implementation and testing plans.
The security
standard ISO1799 was originally prepared by British
Standard Institute as BS 7799, adopted by the Joint
Technical Committee ISO/IEC JTC1, and approved by The
International Organization for Standardization (ISO),
and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
BS 7799 was
issued to provide a set of controls comprising best
practices in information security. It is a strong
reference point for identifying the range of controls
needed for most situations where information systems are
used in the business world. The standard is being
worked through the ISO acceptance process is the
ISO17799 standard.
According to the Institute of Internal
Auditors, there are three categories of controls -
preventive, detective and corrective.
Preventive Controls
are designed to reduce the likelihood
that information will be lost or changed through
unauthorized access, disclosed to unauthorized
individuals, accidentally or intentionally modified or
deleted.
Preventive controls also limit the impact
of lost productivity by ensuring the continued
availability of information. Preventive controls
include:
-
Administrative controls such as employee
orientation, confidentiality agreements, and
separation of duties
-
Processes
such as communication with information owners and
stewards regarding information sensitivity,
communications with end users regarding software
updates, change control for technical architecture,
testing backups, examining logs, and periodic
vulnerability scanning of servers
-
Technical
measures such as firewalls, eliminating unneeded
services, and backups
Detective Controls
enable the detection of problems when they are small,
reducing losses. Detective controls are needed because
preventive controls are never 100% effective, and
because the preventive controls needed, may change from
day to day. When detective controls are implemented
effectively, managers should expect to see an increase
in the number of incidents detected. Although the
implementation of detective controls will result in an
increase in the number of incidents, early detection
will reduce the severity and impact of these incidents.
A host-based intrusion detection system (IDS) is an
example of a detective control.
Corrective Controls
enable recovery when the failure of a preventive control
is detected. Antivirus solutions often provide an
all-in-one package of preventive, detective, and
corrective (file cleaning) capabilities. Corrective
actions may also include restoring systems from system
images, restoring data from backups, and
investigations/forensics. Planning for compromises is a
prerequisite of effective corrective measures.
The selection of controls will be
grounded in a cost comparison of different strategic
approaches to risk mitigation. The cost comparison
will contrast the costs of various approaches with the
perceived gains Tulane University could realize in terms
of increased confidentiality, availability, or integrity
of systems and data. Those gains could include
reduced financial losses, increased university community
confidence, positive audit findings, and regulatory
compliance. Any particular approach will consider:
(1) policies, standards, and procedures; (2) technology
and architecture; (3) resource dedication; (4) training;
and (5) testing.
Excessive reliance on a single control
could create a false sense of confidence. Therefore, the
Tulane University Information Security Strategy requires
multiple layers of security controls and testing to
establish several lines of defense between the attacker
and the asset being attacked. To successfully attack the
data, each layer should be penetrated. With each
penetration, the probability of detecting the attacker
increases.
All members
of the University community share in the responsibility
for protecting information resources for which they have
access or custodianship. Most of the responsibilities
set forth in this section are assigned to four groups of
people: Stewards, Users, Managers (of Users), and
Information Custodians. In general, an individual will
have responsibilities in more than one area. This
section also articulates specific responsibilities for
the University Information Security Officer, Local
Information Security Analysts, the Internal Audit
Department, and the University Counsel's Office
The University is considered the
INFORMATION OWNER of all university information;
individual units within the institution may have
stewardship responsibilities for portions of the
information.
Stewards are
those members of the University community who have the
primary responsibility for particular information.
Each type of "production system information" needs a
Steward. One becomes the Steward either by
designation or by virtue of having acquired, developed,
or created information resources for which no other
party has stewardship. For example, the Campus
Librarians are the Stewards of the library catalogs and
related records; and the Registrars of the University
are the Stewards of student data. For purposes of the
Information Security Policies, faculties are considered
the Stewards of their research and course materials;
students are considered the Stewards of their own work.
Stewards have
the responsibility of Users of their information.
In addition, they are responsible to perform the
following activities:
Establishing security policies and procedures.
Stewards may establish specific information security
policies and procedures for their information where
appropriate. Stewards are responsible for the procedures
related to the creation, retention, distribution and
disposal of information. These should be consistent with
the University Information Security Policies, and the
University's Records Retention Policy, as well as with
other University policies, contractual agreements, and
laws. Stewards may impose additional requirements that
enhance security.
Assigning
classification. Stewards are
responsible for determining the classification of their
information and any specific information handling
requirements that go beyond the University Information
Security Policies, particularly as may be imposed by
confidentiality agreements with third parties.
Information that is Confidential or Internal-use-only
shall be marked as such when it is presented or
distributed to Users, especially when failing to do so
could lead to a misunderstanding of the classification.
Additional markings specifying handling and distribution
requirements may be added
Determining authorizations.
Stewards determine who is authorized to have access to
their information. They shall make sure that those with
access have a need to know the information and know the
security requirements for that information. For
Confidential information, they should also make sure
that those given access have a need to know and have
signed a confidentiality agreement that covers the
information. Information may be disclosed only if
disclosure is consistent with law, regulations and
internal University policies, including those covering
privacy. Except under unusual and specifically
recognized circumstances, access shall be granted to
individuals in such manner as to provide individual
accountability.
Record
Keeping.
Stewards shall keep records documenting the creation,
distribution, and disposal of Confidential information.
This process is also recommended for other types of
information.
Incident
reporting.
Stewards shall report suspected or known compromises of
their information to their Managers, the University
Information Security Officer, and/or Local Information
Security Analists. Incidents will be treated as
Confidential unless there is a need to release specific
information.
Stewards
should designate a back-up person to act if they are
absent or unavailable. Stewards may not delegate
ownership responsibilities to third party organizations
(such as outsourcing firms) or to any individual who is
not a full-time Tulane University employee. When
both the Steward and the back-up Steward are
unavailable, pressing Steward decisions may be made by
the Department Head who ordinarily handles the
information.
Every
University community member is an information resource
User. Users include, for example, students,
faculty, staff, contractors, consultants, and temporary
employees. Users are required to abide by all security
requirements defined by Stewards, implemented by
Custodians, and/or established by the Information
Security Office. Users are required to familiarize
themselves with, and act in accordance with all Tulane
University information security requirements.
Users are also required to participate in information
security training and awareness efforts. Users
should request access from their immediate manager, and
report all suspicious activity and security problems.
Managers are
members of the University community who have management
or supervisory responsibility, including deans,
department chairs, directors, group leaders,
supervisors, etc. Faculty who supervise teaching and
research assistants are included. Managers have
all the responsibilities of Users and, where information
resources originate, Stewards. In addition, they share
responsibility for information security with the people
they manage and supervise. They also are responsible for
the following:
Establishing security policies and procedures.
If Managers decide to establish specific information
security policies and procedures for the people they
manage or supervise, these should be consistent with the
University Information Security Policies, as well as
with other University policies, contractual agreements,
and laws.
Managing
authorizations.
Managers should make sure their people have the access
authorizations needed to perform their jobs. The
authorizations themselves are acquired from the Stewards
of the information resources. Managers should make sure
their people lose access when they are terminated or job
responsibilities change. Managers are responsible for
administering and retaining confidentiality statements
for the people they manage or supervise if
confidentiality statements are required by the
Steward(s) of the information.
User
training and awareness.
Managers shall provide an environment that promotes
security. They shall make sure their people have the
training and tools needed to protect information.
Incident
handling and reporting.
Managers shall report suspected or known compromises of
information resources, including contamination of
resources by computer viruses, to their Managers, the
University Information Security Officer, and/or Local
Information Security Analyst. They shall cooperate with
the investigation of and recovery from security
incidents, including taking any disciplinary action
deemed necessary by the appropriate University
authorities. Incidents will be treated as Confidential
unless there is a need to release specific information.
Custodians
are in physical or logical possession of information
and/or information systems. Like Stewards,
Custodians are specifically designated for different
types of information. In many cases, a Department
Head or a Director in the Technology Services Department
will act as the Custodian. If a Custodian is not
clear based on existing information systems operational
arrangements, then the Chief Information Officer will
designate a Custodian. Custodians follow the
instructions of Stewards, operate systems on behalf of
Stewards, but also serve Users authorized by Stewards.
Custodians should define the technical options, such as
information criticality categories, and then allow
Stewards to select the appropriate option(s) for their
information. Custodians also define information
systems architectures and provide technical consulting
assistance to Stewards so that information systems can
be built and run to best meet business objectives.
If requested, Custodians additionally provide reports to
Stewards about information system operations,
information security problems, and the like.
Custodians are furthermore responsible for safeguarding
the information in their possession, including
implementing access control systems to prevent
inappropriate disclosure, as well as developing,
documenting, and testing information systems contingency
plans.
Local
Information Security Analysts are appointed by
Information Custodians from those campuses, schools,
departments and individuals that manage significant
information resources and systems for making those
resources available to others. The Academic Information
System division at the School of Public Health and
Tropical Medicine, The Data Systems division at the
Tulane University Health Science Center, the
University's libraries, the Business School Information
Systems Technology Department, the Center for Applied
Environmental Public Health, The Faculty Practice Plan
Division, the Primate Center, the Office of
Alumni Affairs and University Relations, Financial
Services, and the Registrars should appoint Local
Information Security Analysts. Other entities that
operate at a school, division, department, or
sub-department level, may do so at their option. Local
Information Security Analysts are responsible for
extending information security within their organization
to systems and networks that they manage. Often they
will have first-hand knowledge of their specific
configurations and applications that will necessitate
further definition of policies and procedures at their
organizational level. They will provide user education
and training. They will work closely with the University
Information Security Officer to ensure that the
University Information Security Policies are implemented
and enforced consistently across the University.
They will take steps to remediate, respond to and
recover from a security incident, similar to the way the
University Information Security Officer is authorized to
do so. Local Information Security Analysts should notify
the University Information Security Officer of all
incidents and actions taken.
The
Information Security Office is the central point of
contact for all information security matters at Tulane
University. Acting as internal technical
consultants, it is this Office's responsibility to
create workable information security compromises which
take into consideration the needs of Users, Custodians,
Stewards, and selected third parties. Reflecting
these compromises, this Office defines information
security standards, procedures, policies, and other
requirements applicable to the entire organization.
The Information Security Office is responsible for
handling all access control administration activities,
monitoring the security of Tulane University information
systems, and providing information security training and
awareness programs to Tulane University community.
The office is additionally responsible for periodically
providing management with reports about the current
state of information security at Tulane University.
While information systems contingency planning is the
responsibility of information Custodians, the
Information Security Office should nonetheless provide
technical consulting assistance related to emergency
response procedures and disaster recovery. The
Information Security Office is also responsible for
organizing a computer emergency response team (CERT) to
promptly respond to virus infections, hacker break-ins,
system outages, and similar information security
problems.
The Tulane
University Internal Audit Department periodically
performs compliance checks to make sure that the
above-mentioned parties are performing their assigned
duties, and to make sure that other information security
requirements are being consistently observed. Internal
Audit acts as the eyes and ears of top management at
Tulane University, making sure that internal controls
(including those related to information security) are
consistent with both top management expectations and
organizational goals.
Any inadequacies in the information security policies
shall be brought to the attention of the University
Information Security Officer.
The
University Counsel's Office is responsible for
interpreting the laws that apply to the information
security policies and making sure that the policies are
consistent with those laws and other University
policies. Any inadequacies in the information security
policies shall be brought to the attention of the
University Information Security Officer who will consult
University Counsel and others within the University as
appropriate. University Counsel is also responsible for
reporting any criminal offense to the appropriate law
enforcement agency.
To assist in
the appropriate handling of information, a sensitivity
classification hierarchy should be used throughout
Tulane University. This hierarchy provides a
shorthand way of referring to sensitivity, and can be
used to simplify information security decisions and
minimize information security costs. One important
intention of a sensitivity classification system is to
provide consistent handling of the information, no
matter what form it takes, no matter where it goes, and
no matter who possesses it. For this reason, it is
important to maintain the labels reflecting sensitivity
classification categories. Tulane University uses
three sensitivity classification categories:
This
classification covers information that can be disclosed
to any person inside or outside the University. Although
security mechanisms are not needed to control disclosure
and dissemination, they are still required to protect
against unauthorized modification and destruction of
information. Examples: marketing brochures and material
posted to the Tulane University Internet web page.
Disclosure of Tulane University information to the
public requires the existence of this label, the
specific permission of the information owner, or
long-standing practice of publicly distributing this
information.
This
classification covers information that requires
protection against unauthorized disclosure,
modification, destruction, and use, but the sensitivity
of the information is less than that for Confidential
information. Examples of Internal-use-only information
are internal memos, correspondence, and other documents
whose distribution is limited as intended by the
Stewards.
This
classification covers sensitive information about
individuals, including information identified in the
Human Resources Manual, and sensitive information about
the University. Information receiving this
classification requires a high level of protection
against unauthorized disclosure, modification,
destruction, and use. Specific categories of
confidential information include information about:
-
Current
and former students (whose education records are
protected under the Family Educational Rights and
Privacy Act (FERPA) of 1974), including student
academic, disciplinary, and financial records (cover
under the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (GLB)); and
prospective students, including information
submitted by student applicants to the University.
-
Protected
Health Information covered under the Health
Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)
of 1996.
-
Research
subjects, Law Center clients, library patrons, and
donors and potential donors.
-
Current,
former, and prospective employees, including
employment, pay, benefits data, and other personnel
information.
-
Research,
including information related to a forthcoming or
pending patent application, and information related
to human subjects. Patent applications should be
filed within one year of a public disclosure (i.e.,
an enabling publication or presentation, sale, or
dissemination of product reduced to practice, etc.)
to preserve United States patent rights. To preserve
foreign patent rights, patent applications should be
filed prior to public disclosure. Therefore, it is
strongly recommended that prior to any public
disclosure, an Invention Disclosure Form be
submitted to the Office of Technology Transfer and
Business Development for evaluation of the
technology and determination of whether to file a
patent application, thereby preserving U.S. and foreign patent rights.
-
Certain
University business operations, finances, legal
matters, or other operations of a particularly
sensitive nature.
-
Information security data, including passwords.
Information about security-related incidents.
Information
that is not classified explicitly is classified by
default as follows: Information falling into one of the
Confidentiality categories listed above is treated as
Confidential. Other information is treated as
Internal-use-only unless it is published (publicly
displayed in any medium) by the Owner, in which case it
is classified Public.
Policies are the primary embodiment of
strategy, guiding decisions made by users,
administrators and managers, and informing those
individuals of their security responsibilities. Policies
also specify the mechanisms through which
responsibilities can be met, and provide guidance in
acquiring, configuring, and auditing information
systems. Key actions that Tulane University will follow
when developing a security policy are:
-
Implementing through ordinary means, such as system
administration procedures and acceptable-use
policies;
-
Enforcing
policy through security tools and sanctions;
-
Delineating the areas of responsibility for users,
administrators, and managers;
-
Communicating in a clear, understandable manner to
all concerned;
-
Obtaining
employee certification that they have read and
understood the policy;
-
Providing
flexibility to address changes in the environment;
and
-
Conducting annually a review and approval by senior
management.
Tulane
University establishes and maintains a security program
that ensures the availability, integrity and
confidentiality of our information resources.
Availability, integrity and confidentiality are the
three basic requirements of security management
programs.
Confidentiality is the protection of information within
systems so that unauthorized people, resources, and
processes cannot access that information. That is,
confidentiality means the system does not allow
information to be disclosed to anyone who is not
authorized to access it. Privacy issues and
regulations such as HIPAA and GLB emphasize the
important of confidentiality on protecting personal
information and student records maintained in automated
information systems.
Confidentiality should be well defined, and procedures
for maintaining confidentiality should be carefully
implemented. Crucial aspects of confidentiality
are User Identification, Authentication
and
Authorization.
Confidentiality can be compromised in several ways. The
following are some of the most common encountered
threats to information confidentiality:
·
Hackers.
A hacker is someone who bypasses the system’s access
controls by taking advantage of security weaknesses that
the system’s developers have left in the system.
In adition, many hackers are adept at discovering the
passwords of authorized users who choose passwords that
are easy to guess. The activities of hackers
represent serious threats to the confidentiality of
information in computer systems.
·
Masquerading.
Masquerading is defined as an attempt to gain access to
system by posing as an authorized user.
·
Unauthorized user activity.
This type of activity occurs when users gain access to
files they are not authorized to access. Weak
access controls often enable such compromise
confidential information.
·
Unprotected download files.
Downloading can compromise confidential information if,
in the process, files are moved from the secure
environment of host system to an unsecured PC for local
processing. While on the PC, confidential
information could be accessed by unauthorized users.
·
Networks.
Networks present a special confidentiality threat
because data following through networks can be viewed at
any node of the network. This is particularly
significant because the unencrypted users IDs and
passwords are subject to compromise by a “sniffer”.
Any confidential information not intended for viewing by
everyone should be protected by encryption techniques.
·
Malicious Sofware:
Malicious programs can be programmed to
copy confidential files to unprotected area of the
system or other resources when they are unknowingly
excecute by the users who have authorized to access
those files
·
Social engineering.
Social Engineering is a term that describes a no
technical kind of intrusion that relies heavily on human
interaction and often involves tricking other to break
security procedures.
Integrity is
the protection of systems information or processes from
intentional or accidental unauthorized changes. Like
confidentiality, integrity can be compromised by
hackers, masqueraders, unauthorized user activity,
networks, malicious codes because each of these
threats can lead to unauthorized change to data or
programs. Three basic principles are used to
establish integrity controls:
·
Granting access on a need-to-know
basis
·
Separation of duties
·
Rotation of duties
Availability
is the assurance that a computer system is accessible by
authorized users when needed. Two facets of availability
are typically discussed:
·
Denial of Service
·
Loss of data processing
capabilities as a result of nature disasters or human
actions.
Denial of
Service usually refers to user or intruder actions that
tie up the computing services in a way that renders the
system unusable by authorized users. Loss of data
processing capabilities because of nature disasters or
human actions is more common. Such loses are
countered by contingency planning which provides an
alternative means of processing, therefore ensure
availability. Physical, Operations, and
Administrative controls are important aspects of
security initiatives that addresses availability.
Risk management is an oversight process
undertaken on a continuous basis. This process involves
risk identification, assessment, control and mitigation.
The scope of risk management embraces a broad horizon,
which incorporates risk anticipation and preclusion.
To quantify risks, it is necessary to assess
vulnerabilities, threats, the cost of required security
measures, and the impacts of the threats if unmitigated.
Tulane University’s information security
risk management framework should include the following
elements:
-
Identify
the information assets of Tulane University.
-
Prioritize information assets according to their
worth to Tulane University.
-
Identify,
analyze, quantify and mitigate technology risks.
-
Implement
appropriate security policies and measures to
safeguard the integrity and reliability of
information assets.
-
Protect
information assets against external and internal
threats.
-
Maintain
a strong capability to detect and respond to attacks
and suspicious activities on its networks or
systems.
Overall risk management policies are the
responsibility of the senior management. Information
risks and security threats are not technical issues but
business issues. High-level risk management strategy is
an oversight process applied on a continuous basis.
Tulane University should develop risk management
processes according to risk acceptance levels, security
profiles and the university governance culture. Tulane
University should also develop rapid response
contingency plans in order to be prepared for new risks
and new threats, which may arise unexpectedly.
Computer security assurance is the degree
of confidence one has that the security measures, both
technical and operational, work as intended to protect
the system and the information it processes. Assurance
is not, however, an absolute guarantee that the measures
work as intended. Assurance can be difficult to
analyze; however, it is something people expect and
obtain (though often without realizing it). For example,
people may routinely get product recommendations from
colleagues but may not consider such recommendations as
providing assurance.
Assurance is a degree of confidence, not
a true measure of how secure the system actually is.
This distinction is necessary because it is extremely
difficult -- and in many cases virtually impossible --
to know exactly how secure a system is.
Auditing and
Monitoring are the two wisely use methods for obtaining
assurance.
An audit
conducted to support assurance examines whether the
system is meeting stated or implied security
requirements including system and organization policies.
Audits can beself-administered or independent (either
internal or external). Both types can provide excellent
information about technical, procedural, managerial, or
other aspects of security. The essential difference
between a self-audit and an independent audit is
objectivity. Reviews done by system management staff,
often called self-audits/ assessments have an inherent
conflict of interest. The system management staff may
have little incentive to say that the computer system
was poorly designed or is sloppily operated. On the
other hand, they may be motivated by a strong desire to
improve the security of the system. In addition, they
are knowledgeable about the system and may be able to
find hidden problems
The
independent auditor, by contrast, should have no
professional stake in the system. Independent audit may
be performed by a professional audit staff in accordance
with generally accepted auditing standards.
There are
many methods and tools, some of which are described
here, that can be used to audit a system. Several of
them overlap.
Automatic
Tools
Automated
tools can be used to help find a variety of threats and
vulnerabilities, such as improper access controls or
access control configurations, weak passwords, lack of
integrity of the system software, or not using all
relevant software updates and patches. These tools are
often very successful at finding vulnerabilities and are
sometimes used by hackers to break into systems. Not
taking advantage of these tools puts system
administrators at a disadvantage. Many of the tools are
simple to use; however, some programs (such as
access-control auditing tools for large mainframe
systems) require specialized skill to use and interpret.
Security
Checklists
A checklist should be provided against
the system being audited. This list outlines the major
security considerations for a system, including
management, operational, and technical issues. One
advantage of using a computer security plan is that it
reflects the unique security environment of the system,
rather than a generic list of controls. Other checklists
can be developed, which include organizational security
policies and practices (often referred to as
baselines). Lists of "generally accepted security
practices" (GSSPs) can also be used. Care needs to be
taken so that deviations from the list are not
automatically considered wrong, since they may be
appropriate for the system's particular environment or
technical constraints.
Checklists can also be used to verify
that changes to the system have been reviewed from a
security point of view. A common audit examines the
system's configuration to see if major changes (such as
connecting to the Internet) have occurred that have not
yet been analyzed from a security point of view.
Penetration Testing
Penetration
testing can use many methods to attempt a system
break-in. In addition to using active automated tools,
penetration testing can be done "manually." The most
useful type of penetration testing is to use methods
that might really be used against the system. For hosts
on the Internet, this would certainly include automated
tools. For many systems, lax procedures or a lack of
internal controls on applications are common
vulnerabilities that penetration testing can target.
Another method is "social engineering," which involves
getting users or administrators to divulge information
about systems, including their passwords
Security
monitoring is an ongoing activity that looks for
vulnerabilities and security problems. Many of the
methods are similar to those used for audits, but are
done more regularly or, for some automated tools, in
real time.
Automatic
Tools
Several types
of automated tools monitor a system for security
problems. Some examples follow:
Virus
scanners are a popular means
of checking for virus infections. These programs test
for the presence of viruses in executable program files.
Checksumming presumes that
program files should not change between updates. They
work by generating a mathematical value based on the
contents of a particular file. When the integrity of the
file is to be verified, the checksum is generated on the
current file and compared with the previously generated
value. If the two values are equal, the integrity of the
file is verified. Program checksumming can detect
viruses, Trojan horses, accidental changes to files
caused by hardware failures, and other changes to files.
However, they may be subject to covert replacement by a
system intruder. Digital signatures can also be used.
Password
crackers
check passwords against a dictionary (either a "regular"
dictionary or a specialized one with easy-to-guess
passwords) and also check if passwords are common
permutations of the user ID. Examples of special
dictionary entries could be the names of regional sports
teams and stars; common permutations could be the user
ID spelled backwards.
Integrity
verification programs can be
used by such applications to look for evidence of data
tampering, errors, and omissions. Techniques include
consistency and reasonableness checks and validation
during data entry and processing. These techniques can
check data elements, as input or as processed, against
expected values or ranges of values; analyze
transactions for proper flow, sequencing, and
authorization; or examine data elements for expected
relationships. These programs comprise a very important
set of processes because they can be used to convince
people that, if they do what they should not do,
accidentally or intentionally, they will be caught. Many
of these programs rely upon logging of individual user
activities.
Intrusion
detectors
analyze the system audit trail, especially log-ons,
connections, operating system calls, and various command
parameters, for activity that could represent
unauthorized activity.
System
performance monitoring
analyzes system performance logs in real time to look
for availability problems, including active attacks
(such as the 1988 Internet worm) and system and network
slowdowns and crashes.
System
Logs
a periodic
review of system-generated logs can detect security
problems, including attempts to exceed access authority
or gain system access during unusual hours.
Configuration Management
From a
security point of view, configuration management
provides assurance that the system in operation is the
correct version (configuration) of the system and that
any changes to be made are reviewed for security
implications. Configuration management can be used to
help ensure that changes take place in an identifiable
and controlled environment and that they do not
unintentionally harm any of the system's properties,
including its security
Changes to
the system can have security implications because they
may introduce or remove vulnerabilities and because
significant changes may require updating the contingency
plan, risk analysis, or accreditation.
Operation security identified the controls
over hardware, media, and the operators and
administrators with access privileges to these
resources. It is the process of safeguarding
information assets when the data is at rest, in
processing state or in transmitting state through
communication links.
Many
important issues in computer security involve human
users, designers, implementers, and managers. A broad
range of security issues relate to how these individuals
interact with computers and the access and authorities
they need to do their job. No computer system can be
secured without properly addressing these security
issues.
Personnel
Security refers to those practices, technologies and/or
services used to ensure that personnel security
safeguards are applied appropriately to those personnel
working for, or on behalf, of the University.
Tulane University ensures the
confidentiality, integrity and availability of its
information systems by implementing reasonable
safeguards to ensure that all members of its workforce
have appropriate access to its information systems,
while preventing those workforce members who do not have
access from obtaining access to information systems.
Tulane University will establish the following policies
as part of its commitment to complying with this
standard:
·
Tulane University ensures that
workforce members who work with or have the ability to
access its information systems are properly authorized
and/or supervised.
·
Tulane University’s workforce
members are screened during the hiring process.
·
University implements a documented
process for terminating access to its information
systems when employment of workforce members ends or
when access is no longer appropriate.
·
Tulane University’s workforce
members are required to sign an Acceptable Use of
Electronic Resource Agreement.
Tulane University should seek to identify
the consequences of disasters, security failures and
loss of service and should develop contingency plans.
Risks should be understood in the terms of their
likelihood. Regular testing, documentation and updates
are required. Updates are required if there are changes
in personnel, addresses or telephone numbers, business
strategy, location, legislation and changes in
contractors, suppliers and key customers.
Computer systems are subject to a wide
range of mishaps -- from corrupted data files, to
viruses, to natural disasters. Some of these mishaps can
be fixed through standard operating procedures. For
example, frequently occurring events (e.g., a mistakenly
deleted file) can usually be readily repaired (e.g., by
restoration from the backup file). More severe mishaps,
such as outages caused by natural disasters, are
normally addressed in an organization's contingency
plan. Other damaging events result from deliberate
malicious technical activity
(e.g., the creation of viruses or system hacking).
A computer security incident can result
from a computer virus, other malicious code, or a system
intruder, either an insider or an outsider. It is used
in this section to broadly refer to those incidents
resulting from deliberate malicious technical activity.
It can more generally refer to those incidents that,
without technically expert response, could result in
severe damage.
Although the threats that hackers and
malicious code pose to systems and networks are well
known, the occurrence of such harmful events remains
unpredictable. Security incidents on larger networks
(e.g., the Internet), such as break-ins and service
disruptions, have harmed various organizations’
computing capabilities. When initially confronted with
such incidents, most organizations respond in an ad hoc
manner. However recurrence of similar incidents often
makes it cost-beneficial to develop a standing
capability for quick discovery of and response to such
events. This is especially true, since incidents can
often "spread" when left unchecked thus increasing
damage and seriously harming an organization.
Incident handling is closely related to
contingency planning as well as support and operations.
An incident handling capability may be viewed as a
component of contingency planning, because it provides
the ability to react quickly and efficiently to
disruptions in normal processing. Broadly speaking,
contingency planning addresses events with the potential
to interrupt system operations. Incident handling can be
considered that portion of contingency planning that
responds to malicious technical threats.
The primary
directive of the Computer Incident Response Team is
Incident Response Management, which manages Tulane’s
response to events that pose risk to our computing
environment.
The
management consists of the following:
·
Coordinating the notification and
distribution of information pertaining to the incident
to the appropriate parties (those with a need to know)
through a predefined escalation path.
·
Mitigation risk to Tulane
Computing Services by minimizing the disruptions to
normal business activities and the costs associated with
remediating the incident (including public relations)
·
Assembling teams of security
technical analysts and forensic team to investigate the
potential vulnerabilities and to resolve specific
intrusions.
·
Management of network logs,
including collection, retention, review, and analysis pf
data
·
Management of the resolution of an
incident, management of the remediation of a
vulnerability, and post-event reporting to the
appropriate parties.
Tulane University will include in the
incident response procedures a predetermined action plan
to address public relations issues. Being able to
maintain constituent’s confidence during a period of
crisis or emergency is vital to the university’s
reputation and survivability.
Computer support and operations refers to
everything done to run a computer system. This includes
both system administration and tasks external to the
system that support its operation (e.g., maintaining
documentation). It does not include system planning or
design. The support and operation of any computer
system, from a three-person local area network to a
campus-wide application serving thousands of users, is
critical to maintaining the security of a system.
Support and operations are routine activities that
enable computer systems to function correctly. These
include fixing software or hardware problems, loading
and maintaining software, and helping users resolve
problems.
The important security considerations
within some of the major categories of support and
operations are:
·
user support,
·
software support,
·
configuration management,
·
backups,
·
media controls,
·
documentation, and
maintenance.
This section addresses the support and
operations activities directly related to security.
Every control discussed in this document relies, in one
way or another, on computer system support and
operations.
An important security consideration for
user support personnel is being able to recognize which
problems (brought to their attention by users) are
security-related. For example, users' inability to log
onto a computer system may result from the disabling of
their accounts due to too many failed access attempts.
This could indicate the presence of hackers trying to
guess users' passwords.
In general, system support and operations
staff need to be able to identify security problems,
respond appropriately, and inform appropriate
individuals. A wide range of possible security problems
exist. Some will be internal to custom applications,
while others apply to off-the-shelf products.
Additionally, problems can be software- or
hardware-based.
The more responsive and knowledgeable
system support and operation staff personnel are, the
less user support will be provided informally. The
support other users provide is important, but they may
not be aware of the "whole picture."
Software is
the heart of our computer operations. Therefore, it is
essential that software function correctly and be
protected from corruption. There are many elements of
software support.
One is
controlling what software is used on a system. If
users or systems personnel can load and execute any
software on a system, the system is more vulnerable to
viruses, to unexpected software interactions, and to
software that may subvert or bypass security controls.
One method of controlling software is to inspect or test
software before it is loaded. This can apply to new
software packages, to upgrades, to off-the-shelf
products, or to custom software, as deemed appropriate.
In addition to controlling the loading and execution of
new software, we should also give care to the
configuration and use of powerful system utilities.
System utilities can compromise the integrity of
operating systems and logical access controls
A second
element in software support can be to ensure that
software has not been modified without proper
authorization. This involves the protection of
software and backup copies. This can be done with a
combination of logical and physical access controls.
Support and operations personnel and
sometimes users back up software and data. This function
is critical to contingency planning. Frequency of
backups will depend upon how often data changes and how
important those changes are. Program managers should be
consulted to determine what backup schedule is
appropriate. Also, as a safety measure, it is useful to
test that backup copies are actually usable. Finally,
backups should be stored securely, as appropriate.
Media
controls include a variety of measures to provide
physical and environmental protection and accountability
for tapes, diskettes, printouts, and other media. From a
security perspective, media controls should be designed
to prevent the loss of confidentiality, integrity, or
availability of information, including data or software,
when stored outside the system. This can include storage
of information before it is input to the system and
after it is output.
Media
Labeling
Controlling
media may require some form of physical labeling. The
labels can be used to identify media with special
handling instructions, to locate needed information, or
to log media (e.g., with serial/control numbers or bar
codes) to support accountability. Identification is
often by colored labels on diskettes or tapes or banner
pages on printouts.
Media
Logging
The logging
of media is used to support accountability. Logs can
include control numbers (or other tracking data), the
times and dates of transfers, names and signatures of
individuals involved, and other relevant information.
Periodic spot checks or audits may be conducted to
determine that no controlled items have been lost and
that all are in the custody of individuals named in
control logs. Automated media tracking systems may be
helpful for maintaining inventories of tape and disk
libraries.
Media
Transmittal
Media control
may be transferred both within the organization and to
outside elements. Possibilities for securing such
transmittal include sealed and marked envelopes,
authorized messenger or courier, or
U.S. certified or registered mail.
Media
Disposition
When media is
disposed of, it may be important to ensure that
information is not improperly disclosed. This applies
both to media that is
external to a computer system (such as a
diskette) and to media inside a computer system,
such as a hard disk. The process of removing information
from media is called sanitization.
Three
techniques are commonly used for media sanitization:
overwriting, degaussing, and destruction. Overwriting
is an effective method for clearing data from magnetic
media. As the name implies, overwriting uses a program
to write (1s, 0s, or a combination) onto the media.
Common practice is to overwrite the media three times.
Overwriting should not be confused with merely deleting
the pointer to a file (which typically happens when a
delete command is used). Overwriting requires that
the media be in working order. Degaussing is a
method to magnetically erase data from magnetic media.
Two types of degausser exist: strong permanent magnets
and electric degaussers. The final method of
sanitization is destruction of the media by shredding or
burning.
Documentation
of all aspects of computer support and operations is
important to ensure continuity and consistency.
Formalizing operational practices and procedures with
sufficient detail helps to eliminate security lapses and
oversights, gives new personnel sufficiently detailed
instructions, and provides a quality assurance function
to help ensure that operations will be performed
correctly and efficiently.
The security
of a system also needs to be documented. This includes
many types of documentation, such as security plans,
contingency plans, risk analyses, and security policies
and procedures. Much of this information, particularly
risk and threat analyses, has to be protected against
unauthorized disclosure. Security documentation also
needs to be both current and accessible. Accessibility
should take special factors into account (such as the
need to find the contingency plan during a disaster).
Security
documentation should be designed to fulfill the needs of
the different types of people who use it. For this
reason, many organizations separate documentation into
policy
and procedures. A security procedures manual
should be written to inform various system users how to
do their jobs securely. A security procedures manual for
systems operations and support staff may address a wide
variety of technical and operational concerns in
considerable detail.
System
maintenance requires either physical or logical access
to the system. Support and operations staff, hardware or
software vendors, or third-party service providers may
maintain a system. Maintenance may be performed on site,
or it may be necessary to move equipment to a repair
site. Maintenance may also be performed remotely via
communications connections. If someone who does not
normally have access to the system performs maintenance,
then a security vulnerability is introduced.
In some
circumstances, it may be necessary to take additional
precautions, such as conducting background
investigations of service personnel. Supervision of
maintenance personnel may prevent some problems, such as
"snooping around" the physical area. However, once
someone has access to the system, it is very difficult
for supervision to prevent damage done through the
maintenance process.
Many computer
systems provide maintenance accounts. These
special log-in accounts are normally preconfigured at
the factory with pre-set, widely known passwords. It
is critical to change these passwords or otherwise
disable the accounts until they are needed.
Procedures should be developed to ensure that only
authorized maintenance personnel can use these accounts.
If the account is to be used remotely, authentication of
the maintenance provider can be performed using
call-back confirmation. This helps ensure that remote
diagnostic activities actually originate from an
established phone number at the vendor's site. Other
techniques can also help, including encryption and
decryption of diagnostic communications; strong
identification and authentication techniques, such as
tokens; and remote disconnect verification.
Larger
systems may have
diagnostic ports. In addition, manufacturers of
larger systems and third-party providers may offer more
diagnostic and support services. It is critical to
ensure that these ports are only used by authorized
personnel and cannot be accessed by hackers.
Physical and Environmental Security refer
to those practices, technologies and/or services used to
ensure that physical security safeguards are applied.
Physical security safeguards take into account 1) the
physical facility housing the information resources; 2)
the general operating location; and 3) the support
facilities that underpin the operation of the
information systems.
Physical security safeguards provide a
first line of defense for information resources against
physical damage, physical theft, unauthorized disclosure
of information, loss of control over system integrity,
and interruption to computer services.
Tulane University limits physical access
to information resources and the facilities in which
they are located while taking reasonable steps to ensure
that properly authorized workforce members have access
to such information resources and facilities. Tulane
University ensures, where possible, that information
resources are located in areas where physical access can
be controlled in order to minimize the risk of
unauthorized access. Tulane University takes reasonable
steps to ensure that the level of protection provided
for the information resources, as well as the facilities
in which they are housed, is commensurate with that of
the identified threats and risks. Tulane University will
establish the following policies and procedures as part
of its commitment to complying with this standard:
·
Mission critical system
facilities should be located in a secure location that
is locked and restricted to authorized personnel only.
·
Access to "critical" computer
hardware, wiring, displays and networks should be
controlled by rules of least privilege.
·
System configurations (i.e.,
hardware, wiring, displays, networks) of "critical"
systems should be documented. Installations and changes
to those physical configurations should be governed by a
formal change management process.
·
A system of monitoring and
auditing physical access to "critical" computer
hardware, wiring, displays and networks should be
implemented (e.g. badges, cameras, access logs).
Change control management is the key
ingredient that authorized changes to production system,
including system and application software. Changes
to production system include the implementation of new
applications, modification of existing applications,
removing old applications or upgrading, patching system
software. From security viewpoint, we are
concerned with potential security impact of these
changes, especially if they are not documented or
approved by management.
Historically, the most easily sidestepped
control is change control. Therefore, we should
have a policy regarding changes to operation systems,
computing equipment, networks, and applications. A
policy is needed for change to be effective and orderly.
Change management procedures should be
designed to ensure that the costs and benefits of change
are properly analyzed and that changes to systems are
mode in a controlled way. An outline of Change
Management Process is:
-
A change
is requested by completion of a change request form.
-
A change
request form is analyzed for validity.
-
The ways
the change could be implemented are analyzed.
-
The costs
associated with the change are analyzed.
-
The
analysis and change recommendations are recorded.
-
The
change request is given to change control board for
final decision.
-
Accepted
changes are made and recorded.
-
The
change implementation is submitted to quality
control for approval.
During this process, the Information
Security Office or his designee should have an
opportunity to review the changes to ensure that changes
do not result in bypass or erosion of the required
security control. Thus, it is important for the
ISO to be involved in change review at the earliest
point in the process.
As part of defense-in-depth strategy,
Tulane University deploys malicious software checking
programs at the firewall, perimeter (edge) of the
network and on individual end-user systems. Anti-virus
software is installed on all Systems and workforce
members are prohibited from bypassing or disabling such
software unless properly authorized to do so. As
described in the E-mail Security Section, antivirus
software examines all electronic mail attachments,
downloads, and electronic media to confirm they do not
contain malicious software. Tulane University subscribes
to updates for all malicious software checking programs,
including anti-virus software.
E-mail is an essential element of business today,
providing convenient, time-saving communication with
co-workers, students and collaborators. Anything that
threatens the integrity, reliability and performance of
e-mail has a profound impact on business operations.
Spam is currently the biggest e-mail threat, and Tulane
University should take action to protect our e-mail
systems.
With the volume and threat of spam on the
rise, the business costs of spam have increased
dramatically. The sheer volume of spam pouring into
Tulane e-mail systems has required us to increase the
capacity of our e-mail systems with costly network and
infrastructure investments to keep pace. An August 2003
study from the Radicati Group reported that spam forces
enterprises to spend an average of $49 per email user
per year to handle the load.
Spam drains employee productivity as
workers waste time reading, deleting or even responding
to spam e-mails. Additionally, the sexually explicit
nature of many spam messages poses potential liability
for Tulane University.
Although it takes a person only a moment
to process a message and identify it as spam, it is
difficult to automate that human process because no
single message characteristic consistently identifies
spam. In fact, there are hundreds of different message
characteristics that may indicate an e-mail is spam, and
an effective anti-spam solution should be capable of
employing multiple spam detection techniques.
In addition to effectively identifying
spam, Tulane University should be assured legitimate
mail is not blocked in error. Even one false positive,
or incorrectly blocked e-mail, can have a significant
impact on businesses today. Accurate spam blocking
requires a combination of tools to examine various
message criteria combined with real-time research and
intelligence data.
By aggregating multiple spam detection
technologies, Tulane can combine the benefits of each
individual technique while minimizing the drawbacks.
The widespread adoption of email through
the years has been accompanied by the development of
malicious code, that is, email viruses and attacks.
Email has provided hackers and crackers with an easy way
to distribute harmful content to the internal network.
Campus LANs have been breached by worms and viruses, as
well as by crackers, through the use of email. Hackers
can easily circumvent the protection offered by a
firewall by tunneling through the email protocol. A
typical firewall cannot protect against such email
attacks, because it simply does not analyse email and
its contents.
Because email messages can include file
attachments, hackers can send infected files and hope
that the recipient will open them, as happened with
Melissa and Manwella. This method makes use of social
engineering to urge the end user to run the file. Yet,
other methods exist which allow a skilled and possibly
malevolent cracker to inject code through email and run
custom-made applications automatically while the end
user reads the email text. Such problems have been
around since the use of HTML in email and have been
exploited by notorious worms such as the KaK worm,
BubbleBoy virus or the more recent Nimda.
Although anti-virus products can catch many viruses and
worms, hackers are able to dodge such protection by
producing their own customized code. This can result in
dangerous threats penetrating the campus network through
lesser known methods and through bypassing anti-virus
protection and other traditional anti-hacker protection.
The threat posed by hackers to the internal network is
huge, as internal network security is low to ensure
usability.
To control the spread of email virus,
Tulane University needs to protect against the methods
described above through content filtering, attachment
checking and virus scanning of all incoming and outgoing
emails at Exchange Server and SMTP gateway level.
Furthermore, it is desirable to adopt the use of
multiple virus engines in multiple locations, for better
protection.
As part of the business practice, our
physicians and clinicians at Tulane University Medical
Group (TUMG) not only collaborate on medical issue with
colleagues and staff via e-mail but also communicate
with patients to diagnose medical problems over this
medium. This increasing reliance on e-mail is bringing
information privacy and security into the spotlight as
these issues are proving to be a roadblock to more
widespread use of e-mail by those in the healthcare
field – especially when the e-mail messages contain
confidential patient information.
In addition to the usual concerns about
privacy and security of e-mail correspondence, Tulane
University should now consider the regulatory compliance
requirements associated with the Health Insurance
Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA). The
Administrative Simplification section of HIPAA Security
Rule mandates privacy and security of electronic
Protected Health Information (e-PHI). HIPAA, as it
relates to e-mail security, is an enforcement of
otherwise well-known best practices that include:
·
Ensuring that e-mail messages
containing confidential information are kept secure when
transmitted over an unprotected link
·
Ensuring that e-mail systems and
users are properly authenticated so that confidential
information does not get into the wrong hands
·
Protecting e-mail servers and
message stores where confidential information may be
stored
As covered entities under HIPAA, Tulane
University should comply and put these practices in
place.
The
evolution of hybrid computer attacks utilizing multiple
vectors to breech security infrastructure has
highlighted the need for enterprises to defend
themselves against a constantly shifting threat.
Organizations have suffered catastrophic damage to their
business confidentiality, integrity, and availability as
intrusions have become more virulent. In a matter of
minutes, companies can suffer significant lost revenue
as production lines go dark and order taking and
fulfillment processes come to a halt due to attacks like
Sasser, SQL Slammer, and Nimda.
Traditional firewall and anti-virus solutions are
necessary to prevent the transfer of malicious code, but
are not sufficient to address the new generation of
threats and targeted attacks. Security solutions that
proactively protect vital information assets in real
time, without waiting for new signature creation and
distribution, are needed.
In
the recent report titled Intrusion Prevention by the
Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), it was concluded
that the time and resources spent on investigation and
remediation are remarkably high for such attacks and
intrusions. Such costs will be significantly reduced
with an Intrusion Prevention System (IPS), since an IPS
solution will provide a proactive measure of protection.
Due
to the dynamic nature of network intrusions and threats,
deploying a combination of both network and host IPS
technologies provides the greatest level of protection
for critical data and critical applications. Network IPS
solutions are deployed inline at the network perimeter,
core, or remote office. They are designed to protect
Tulane University critical infrastructure by blocking
internal and external attacks on the wire and are
considered the first line of defense. Host IPS solutions
are deployed on servers, desktops, and laptops. They are
designed to protect critical systems and applications by
blocking attacks at the host and are considered the last
line of defense.
I&A is a critical building block of
computer security since it is the basis for most types
of access control and for establishing user
accountability. Access control often requires that the
system be able to identify and differentiate among
users. For example, access control is often based on
least privilege, which refers to the granting to
users of only those accesses required to perform their
duties. User accountability requires the linking of
activities on a computer system to specific individuals
and, therefore, requires the system to identify users.
Identification
is the means by which a user provides a claimed
identity to the system. Authentication is the
means of establishing the validity of this claim.
There are
three means of authenticating a user's identity, which
can be used alone or in combination:
-
something
the individual
knows (a secret -- e.g., a password, Personal
Identification Number (PIN), or cryptographic key);
-
something
the individual
possesses (a token -- e.g., an ATM card or a
smart card); and
-
something
the individual
is (a biometric -- e.g., such characteristics
as a voice pattern, handwriting dynamics, or a
fingerprint).
Tulane
University is currently implementing I&A with a user ID
or user Social Security Number coupled with something
the user knows (password) for all systems. However,
because of privacy issue Tulane University
will discontinue the use of the social security number
as the user identifier and moving forward with a
Campus-Wide ID described below.
The security
of a password system is dependent upon keeping passwords
secret. Unfortunately, there are many ways that the
secret may be divulged. This problem can be
significantly mitigated by improving password security,
as discussed in the Password Management Section.
In an effort
to increase the level of protection given to Social
Security numbers, Tulane University is moving forward
with a Campus-Wide ID (CWID). This change will
eventually allow students to use services and identify
themselves to individuals inside and outside of the
University without ever revealing their social security
number (SSN).
It should be
recognized that Tulane University can never totally
eliminate the need for Social Security numbers. They are
still required for a number of purposes including
processing federal aid, reporting income of student
workers, or obtaining official transcripts. However, the
use of Social Security numbers will be significantly
reduced with the use of the Campus-Wide Identification
numbers.
The password is a protected word that
authenticates the user to the system. The theory
is that a user has a secrete password, something only
the user knows; and when the password is entered into
the system, it should be the user, because the user is
the only one who knows the secrete password.
The problem
with this theory is the secrecy of password. Users
might right it down, tape it to the monitor or
underneath the keyboard, share it with others, or make
it so simple that it is easily guessed. Because of the
ease in compromising reusable passwords, they are not
considered adequate control by themselves.
A passphrase
is a sequence of characters or words used as an
alternative to a password. There is no real
difference between the two, except in the meaning of the
terms themselves: “password” encourages users to think
short and easy, whereas “passphrase” is meant to
encourage the user to type in a complete phrase.
Recommendations for implementation and management of
passwords or passphrases are:
·
Password lifetime should be
restricted.
·
Users should create passwords that
are not dictionary words for names.
·
Users should create passwords
using a mix of alphabetic, numeric, and special
characters.
·
Users should create longer
passwords, which tend to be more secure.
·
Many operating systems can be
configured to lock a user ID after a set number of
failed login attempts. This helps to prevent guessing of
passwords.
·
Creating a good passphrase is one
of the most important things that can be done to
preserve the privacy of computer data and email
messages. A passphrase should be:
Þ
Known only to the creator
Þ
Long enough to be secure
Þ
Hard to guess, even by someone who
knows the user well
Þ
Easy to remember and easy to type
accurately.
Because
passwords are a vital element of access control in our
environment, it is important to protect access to the
password file. Typically, passwords are stored in
a password database file that uses on-way hash
algorithm. Therefore, the hash algorithm should be
protected. For security measures, the operating
system should offer both encryption and other access
control to protect the password file.
Access
controls are collection of mechanisms that specify what
users can do on the system or network such as what
resources they can access and what operations they can
perform. They are countermeasures for ensuring that only
users with proper need and authority can access the
system or network, are allowed to use network services
or execute programs, can read, edit, add and delete the
appropriate information on the system.
Access
controls are implemented to ensure the availability,
integrity, and confidentiality of information and
i
